Born in 1614, self-taught West Country scientist Christopher Merrett came from an area better known today for producing cider. Records show Dr. Merrett devised two techniques that were fundamental to making champagne decades before Benedictine monk Dom Perignon.
On 17 December 1662 Dr. Christopher Merret presented "Some Observations concerning the Ordering of Wines" to the Royal Society. In this paper Merret describes winemakers adding quantities of sugar and molasses to make the wines brisk and sparkling.
Today this would be called the méthode champenoise, the addition of liqueur de tirage in order to stimulate a secondary fermentation that produces the bubbles in sparkling wine. Spontaneous secondary fermentation has occurred in still wines since antiquity; but most glass bottles of the time were not strong enough to contain the high pressures thus generated and so exploding bottles were an occupational hazard of winemaking.
Admiral Sir Robert Mansell obtained a monopoly on glass production in England in the early 17th century and industrialized the process; his coal-powered factories in Newcastle-on-Tyne produced much stronger bottles than were available in France. As a result the English could deliberately induce a secondary fermentation in wine without the risk of blowing up the bottle, 30 years before Dom Pérignon is considered to have invented sparkling wine in Champagne around 1697.
Col. Thomas Blount’s house was at Wricklemarsh, south of Blackheath, Kent. In May 1665 Pepys went there for lunch and a charriot test run. He said “… and thence by water to Greenwich; and there coaches met us; and to his house, a very stately sight for situation and brave plantations; and among others, a vineyard, the first that ever I did see.”
The Norwoods acquired Leckhampton Manor, 8 miles from Gloucester, in 1486.
Henry Norwood inherited a small property in Worcestershire from his father who died shortly after he was born. With the onset of the Civil Wars he joined the King, and distinguished himself at the storming of Bristol in 1643. He was in the Worcester garrison when it surrendered at the end of the first Civil War, and went into exile in Holland.
Col. Henry Norwood returned in June 1649 and paid £15 for his delinquency. Charles II recommended him to the royalist governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, who sent him to Scotland with money to buy a patent as ‘escheator, treasurer and receiver of quit rents’ during pleasure.
Col. Norwood took no part in the second Civil War, but was arrested and charged in 1652 with complicity in the murder of Ambassador Dorislaus. An active royalist conspirator, he was imprisoned from 1655 to 1659, and taken prisoner in Booth’s Rising.
At the Restoration Col. Norwood was rewarded with a post at Court. He had shipping interests in the American and Mediterranean trades; but he had military ambitions. From 1662-1672 he was on garrison duty overseas, with spells of home leave. He became at odds with the civil authorities in Tangier, especially after the 1668 charter, and returned to England in 1669.
Norwood disposed of his Virginia post, although he continued to receive 1/3 of the profits from the buyers.
He acquired the wardenship of the Fleet prison, becoming the deputy.
He settled at Leckhampton, which he purchased from a cousin, and became embroiled in Gloucester politics, which was divided between the ‘loyal’ and ‘adverse’ parties. He was elected to the common council as a compromise candidate.
Norwood was named an alderman for life in Gloucester's charter of April 1672. In 1673 he was elected mayor. On 20 Apr. 1675 he was returned as an M.P., but the election was disputed. Norwood was duly returned by the senior sheriff, and allowed to take his seat, although he was not declared elected for 3 years.
Col. Norwood MP joined the committee on the explanatory bill against the growth of Popery on 18 May and listed as an official, presumably because of his wardenship of the Fleet, although he sold this in 1676 for £3,000 down and a rent of £800 p.a. for 14 years. Norwood resumed his wardenship of the Fleet in 1679 when payments fell into arrears.
He must have opposed Exclusion, for he was added to the lieutenancy in 1683.
He welcomed the "Glorious" Revolution as in April 1689 he subscribed £1,700 as a loan to the new Government. This shows he was a man of means, despite being hard hit at the Stop of the Exchequer.
He died on 14 Sept. 1689 and was buried at Leckhampton. In his will he settled the estate on the sons of Francis Norwood, the cousin from whom he had purchased it.
"The offhand decision of some commonplace mind high in office at a critical moment influences the course of events for a hundred years." -- Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)
"Now it is my turn in history to see Obama's inauguration (TV, of course). I will not be available till after the ceremony!"
Ah, Ruben ... what would you say if you annotated 8 years on? We're out marching against inequity again today. The Diary frequently reminds me that history does not repeat itself, but there is poetry to it. And the pendalum swings wildly. To ever action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Sigh. How many lessons do we need? I wish wo/mankind could hurry up and learn!
Pepys seems to be fairly tolerant of Elizabeth's opinions and moods. In retrospect I think today marks the beginning of Elizabeth's mostly silent rebellion against his womanizing and selfishness. Perhaps she knows how wives around the country and the colonies are treated for having opinions? For more information check out:
Jane Brox| an excerpt adapted from "Silence: A Social History of One of the Least Understood Elements of Our Lives"| Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | Januray 2019 |
"What becometh a woman best, and first of all? Silence. What second? Silence. What third? Silence. What fourth? Silence. Yea, if a man should aske me till Domes daie I would still crie silence, silence." — Thomas Wilson, The Arte of Rhetorique, 1560
J.D. Davies may be a serious historian, but he is also a novelist of entertaining novels about these times which include people you have met through the Diary. I have yet to read Pepys' Navy, but am currently enjoying his Kings of the Sea, and find his serious style also enjoyable. I also hear the pictures in Pepys' Navy are spectacular.
Charles, Prince of Wales supposedly lost his virginity at the age of 14 [1644] when he was seduced by his former wet-nurse, Cristabella Pyne Wyndham. She was married to Edmund Wyndham MP for Bridgwater, and they had gone to Jersey as part of the Royalist party. She later pulled strings to get her husband a plumb job for Charles on the Continent, but he was ridiculed into leaving Court. His losses during the Interregnum were over 70,000l., and he spent much of the 1660's petitioning for appointments and money.
His family were the Wyndhams who helped Charles escape after Worcester.
Anything you could do to keep the food warm was important. In Pepys' day the kitchen was frequently in another building because of the risk of fire. The maid could put the plates into the chafing dish before the meal, so she had one less thing to carry during the meal. This solved two problems. Plus, of course, that big hunk of silver on the sideboard would impress the guests.
Opium, laudanum ... since doctors and "scientists" knew about these pain killers, why not use them? Did they have trouble sharing the information, and/or information getting lost. For instance, opium was brought back by the Crusaders ... but the information was forgotten (possibly the addiction outweighed the benefits, making it too dangerous?).
The East India Company was delivering opium by now. Who was using it?
In Pepys' time some doctors knewn about laudanum, because in ten years from now the physician Thomas Sydenham made a huge impact on society by publishing his recipe for laudanum, sharing his discovery worldwide.
As mentioned above, Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss physician who reintroduced opium and laudanum for medical use in Western Europe. He was so enthusiastic about the drug that he would always carry it with him calling it the "immortality stone." He thought "Among medicines offered by Almighty God to relieve human suffering none is so universal and effective as opium."
The term laudanum is used in the medical literature of the 17th century to define a drug of proven efficacy, and so many laudanum recipes were named after famous physicians. Some question whether or not Paracelsus' laudanum contained opium.
Sydenham's laudanum, on the other hand, was the major opium-containing formulation used in England in the 17th century, and in the Americas until the early 20th century. It contained opium, wine, beer, saffron, clove and cinnamon.
In the 18th century other preparations appeared. One famous one invented between 1702 and 1718 was Dover's Powder consisted of a blend of opium, salt, tartar, licorice and feveroot, and Paregoric (from Le Mort, professor at the University of Leyden).
A modified formulation, called Paregoric Elixir with opium, honey, camphor, anis and wine was published in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721.
About the same time, another preparation known as Rousseau's laudanum was fashionable in Continental Europe.
However, opium's adverse effects were recognized, worrying even Sydenham.
In 1700, Londoner physician John Jones published "The Mysteries of Opium Reveal'd" which called attention to the risks of excessive use of this drug, admitting that adverse effects could be a consequence of residues not eliminated during preparation.
Two other books were written later in the 18th century about opium: George Young's "Treatise on Opium" in 1750, and Samuel Crumpe's "Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium" in 1793. Both mentioned addiction and, more superficially, withdrawal symptoms. None of them suggested any restriction on opium either as drug or as a source of pleasure.
"The author Fanny Burney (aka Madame d'Arblay) had a breast removed in 1811 with nothing except a drink of wine and a cambric handkerchief to help her."
The problem seems to have been the inability of doctors and "scientists" to share information, and/or information getting lost. For instance, opium was brought back by the Crusaders ... but they forgot about it (possibly the addiction outweighed the benefits, making it too dangerous?).
In Pepys' time some doctors must have known about laudanum, because in 1676, physician Thomas Sydenham made a hugh impact on society by publishing his recipe for laudanum, sharing his discovery worldwide.
But he wasn't the "inventor." Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss physician who reintroduced opium for medical use in Western Europe. He was so enthusiastic about the drug that would always carry it with him calling it the "immortality stone." He thought "Among medicines offered by Almighty God to relieve human suffering none is so universal and effective as opium."
The term laudanum is used in the medical literature of the 17th century to define a drug of proven efficacy, and so many laudanum recipes were named after famous physicians. There are questions as to whether or not Paracelsus' laudanum contained opium.
Sydenham's laudanum, on the other hand, was the major opium-containing formulation used in England in the 17th century, and in the Americas until the early 20th century. It contained opium, wine, beer, saffron, clove and cinnamon.
In the 18th century other preparations appeared. One famous one invented between 1702 and 1718 was Dover's Powder consisted of a blend of opium, salt, tartar, licorice and feveroot, and Paregoric (from Le Mort, professor at the University of Leyden).
A modified formulation, called Paregoric Elixir with opium, honey, camphor, anis and wine was published in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721.
About the same time, another preparation known as Rousseau's laudanum was fashionable in Continental Europe.
However, opium's adverse effects were recognized, worrying Sydenham himself, who was a notorious enthusiast of the drug.
In 1700, Londoner physician John Jones published "The Mysteries of Opium Reveal'd" which called attention to the risks of excessive use of this drug, admitting that adverse effects could be a consequence of residues not eliminated during preparation.
Two other books were written later in the 18th century about opium: George Young's "Treatise on Opium" in 1750, and Samuel Crumpe's "Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium" in 1793. Both mentioned addiction and, more superficially, withdrawal symptoms. None of them suggested any restriction on opium either as drug or as a source of pleasure.
There is an old pub called The Angel, worthy of a visit for its views of the Thames, and some nearby features Pepys must have known. The space immediately to the south is now a large lawn where the remains of old stone walls are visible. They are the foundations of Edward III’s Manor House. He reigned from 1327 to 1377, a long time in the 14th century.
The Manor House was built on a low-lying island when much of the land was marsh. It consisted of a central courtyard surrounded by buildings and a moat on three sides. The fourth side was open to the Thames, until land on which Bermondsey Wall now runs was reclaimed, and the growth of industry eastwards from the City resulted in construction of embankments, cutting off the house from the river by the end of the 16th century -- so those plans for protecting the Thames banks considered by Evelyn were not so far fetched.
There is access to the foreshore via stairs to the right of the Angel, the Rotherhithe Stairs. A short distance to the east is another set, modern replacements for the King’s Stairs. The King’s Stairs and the Redriff Stairs both appear on John Roque’s Map Of London of 1746.
Correct. Since you mentioned peanuts, I didn't know when they joined the British food chain:
"European explorers first discovered peanuts in Brazil. ... Tribes in central Brazil ground peanuts with maize to make a drink. Peanuts grew as far north as Mexico when the Spanish began their exploration of the new world. The explorers took peanuts back to Spain, and from there traders and explorers spread them to Asia and Africa. Africans were the first people to introduce peanuts to North America beginning in the 1700s.
"Records show that it wasn’t until the early 1800s that peanuts were grown as a commercial crop in the United States. They were first grown in Virginia and used mainly for oil, food and as a cocoa substitute. At this time, peanuts were regarded as a food for livestock and the poor and were considered difficult to grow and harvest.
"Peanut production steadily grew the first half of the 19th century. Peanuts became prominent after the Civil War when Union soldiers found they liked them and took them home. Both armies subsisted on this food source high in protein."
If they had been accepted as food in England, the knowledge would have crossed the Atlantic quicker than that.
Germs: I wonder if their immune systems were stronger than ours?
From reading hundreds of biographies, it seems to me their lives would have averaged much the same as ours if they had had better operating facilities and knowledge. Three score and ten, as the Bible says, seems to be the design norm. (In Pepys day I would have been crippled or died at 7 from appendicitis.)
George [Palmer] Fitzroy was born in Oxford on 28 December 1665, to Charles II and Barbara Villiers Palmer, Countess of Castlemaine. He was created Earl of Northumberland in 1674, and Duke of Northumberland in 1683.
George Fitzroy married twice, but died without issue on the 28 June, 1716 at the age of 50.
The first Duchess of Northumberland was Catherine Wheatley Lucy FitzRoy, widow of Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, a Captain in the Royal Horse Guards -- I'm guessing it was his father's wedding Elizabeth and Samuel Pepys attended in 1659/60.
Comments
Second Reading
About Christopher Merrett
San Diego Sarah • Link
Born in 1614, self-taught West Country scientist Christopher Merrett came from an area better known today for producing cider. Records show Dr. Merrett devised two techniques that were fundamental to making champagne decades before Benedictine monk Dom Perignon.
On 17 December 1662 Dr. Christopher Merret presented "Some Observations concerning the Ordering of Wines" to the Royal Society. In this paper Merret describes winemakers adding quantities of sugar and molasses to make the wines brisk and sparkling.
Today this would be called the méthode champenoise, the addition of liqueur de tirage in order to stimulate a secondary fermentation that produces the bubbles in sparkling wine. Spontaneous secondary fermentation has occurred in still wines since antiquity; but most glass bottles of the time were not strong enough to contain the high pressures thus generated and so exploding bottles were an occupational hazard of winemaking.
Admiral Sir Robert Mansell obtained a monopoly on glass production in England in the early 17th century and industrialized the process; his coal-powered factories in Newcastle-on-Tyne produced much stronger bottles than were available in France. As a result the English could deliberately induce a secondary fermentation in wine without the risk of blowing up the bottle, 30 years before Dom Pérignon is considered to have invented sparkling wine in Champagne around 1697.
About Col. Thomas Blount
San Diego Sarah • Link
Col. Thomas Blount’s house was at Wricklemarsh, south of Blackheath, Kent. In May 1665 Pepys went there for lunch and a charriot test run. He said “… and thence by water to Greenwich; and there coaches met us; and to his house, a very stately sight for situation and brave plantations; and among others, a vineyard, the first that ever I did see.”
https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/…
About Friday 19 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
I suspect Pepys would easily understand Trump (who has many "kingly" asperations) better than Obama.
But I recall Phil asking us not to make modern political analogies. I know -- I started it. Sorry Phil.
About Maj./Col. Henry Norwood
San Diego Sarah • Link
The Norwoods acquired Leckhampton Manor, 8 miles from Gloucester, in 1486.
Henry Norwood inherited a small property in Worcestershire from his father who died shortly after he was born. With the onset of the Civil Wars he joined the King, and distinguished himself at the storming of Bristol in 1643. He was in the Worcester garrison when it surrendered at the end of the first Civil War, and went into exile in Holland.
Col. Henry Norwood returned in June 1649 and paid £15 for his delinquency. Charles II recommended him to the royalist governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, who sent him to Scotland with money to buy a patent as ‘escheator, treasurer and receiver of quit rents’ during pleasure.
Col. Norwood took no part in the second Civil War, but was arrested and charged in 1652 with complicity in the murder of Ambassador Dorislaus. An active royalist conspirator, he was imprisoned from 1655 to 1659, and taken prisoner in Booth’s Rising.
At the Restoration Col. Norwood was rewarded with a post at Court. He had shipping interests in the American and Mediterranean trades; but he had military ambitions. From 1662-1672 he was on garrison duty overseas, with spells of home leave. He became at odds with the civil authorities in Tangier, especially after the 1668 charter, and returned to England in 1669.
Norwood disposed of his Virginia post, although he continued to receive 1/3 of the profits from the buyers.
He acquired the wardenship of the Fleet prison, becoming the deputy.
He settled at Leckhampton, which he purchased from a cousin, and became embroiled in Gloucester politics, which was divided between the ‘loyal’ and ‘adverse’ parties. He was elected to the common council as a compromise candidate.
Norwood was named an alderman for life in Gloucester's charter of April 1672. In 1673 he was elected mayor. On 20 Apr. 1675 he was returned as an M.P., but the election was disputed. Norwood was duly returned by the senior sheriff, and allowed to take his seat, although he was not declared elected for 3 years.
Col. Norwood MP joined the committee on the explanatory bill against the growth of Popery on 18 May and listed as an official, presumably because of his wardenship of the Fleet, although he sold this in 1676 for £3,000 down and a rent of £800 p.a. for 14 years. Norwood resumed his wardenship of the Fleet in 1679 when payments fell into arrears.
He must have opposed Exclusion, for he was added to the lieutenancy in 1683.
He welcomed the "Glorious" Revolution as in April 1689 he subscribed £1,700 as a loan to the new Government. This shows he was a man of means, despite being hard hit at the Stop of the Exchequer.
He died on 14 Sept. 1689 and was buried at Leckhampton. In his will he settled the estate on the sons of Francis Norwood, the cousin from whom he had purchased it.
See https://www.historyofparliamenton…
About Catholicism
San Diego Sarah • Link
"The offhand decision of some commonplace mind high in office at a critical moment influences the course of events for a hundred years." -- Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)
About Friday 19 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
"Now it is my turn in history to see Obama's inauguration (TV, of course). I will not be available till after the ceremony!"
Ah, Ruben ... what would you say if you annotated 8 years on? We're out marching against inequity again today. The Diary frequently reminds me that history does not repeat itself, but there is poetry to it. And the pendalum swings wildly. To ever action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Sigh. How many lessons do we need? I wish wo/mankind could hurry up and learn!
About Sunday 9 October 1664
San Diego Sarah • Link
Pepys seems to be fairly tolerant of Elizabeth's opinions and moods. In retrospect I think today marks the beginning of Elizabeth's mostly silent rebellion against his womanizing and selfishness. Perhaps she knows how wives around the country and the colonies are treated for having opinions? For more information check out:
https://longreads.com/2019/01/15/…
Jane Brox| an excerpt adapted from "Silence: A Social History of One of the Least Understood Elements of Our Lives"| Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | Januray 2019 |
"What becometh a woman best, and first of all? Silence. What second? Silence. What third? Silence. What fourth? Silence. Yea, if a man should aske me till Domes daie I would still crie silence, silence." — Thomas Wilson, The Arte of Rhetorique, 1560
About Thursday 18 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
Hummmm. Lots of people seem to be aware of Pepys' fascination with Mrs. Knipp.
About Gravesend, Kent
San Diego Sarah • Link
And for photos of St. George's Church and the Pocahontas statue see
https://www.atlasobscura.com/plac…
About King's House (Greenwich)
San Diego Sarah • Link
The fantastic ceiling at Greenwich Palace has now been renovated, and reopens in March 2019. The entrance is through The King William Undercroft.
For more information and a glimpse of the ceiling:
https://londontopia.net/culture/a…
About Pepys's Navy: Ships, Men and Warfare 1649-1689
San Diego Sarah • Link
J.D. Davies may be a serious historian, but he is also a novelist of entertaining novels about these times which include people you have met through the Diary. I have yet to read Pepys' Navy, but am currently enjoying his Kings of the Sea, and find his serious style also enjoyable. I also hear the pictures in Pepys' Navy are spectacular.
About Christabella Wyndham
San Diego Sarah • Link
Charles, Prince of Wales supposedly lost his virginity at the age of 14 [1644] when he was seduced by his former wet-nurse, Cristabella Pyne Wyndham. She was married to Edmund Wyndham MP for Bridgwater, and they had gone to Jersey as part of the Royalist party. She later pulled strings to get her husband a plumb job for Charles on the Continent, but he was ridiculed into leaving Court. His losses during the Interregnum were over 70,000l., and he spent much of the 1660's petitioning for appointments and money.
His family were the Wyndhams who helped Charles escape after Worcester.
About Friday 25 May 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
Ahhh. Thank you Mary K. I'm uninformed about these things, but now you mention it, people with overdoses do stop breathing. Duh!
About Wednesday 10 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
"a silver chafing-dish for warming plates,"
Anything you could do to keep the food warm was important. In Pepys' day the kitchen was frequently in another building because of the risk of fire. The maid could put the plates into the chafing dish before the meal, so she had one less thing to carry during the meal. This solved two problems. Plus, of course, that big hunk of silver on the sideboard would impress the guests.
About Friday 25 May 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
Opium, laudanum ... since doctors and "scientists" knew about these pain killers, why not use them? Did they have trouble sharing the information, and/or information getting lost. For instance, opium was brought back by the Crusaders ... but the information was forgotten (possibly the addiction outweighed the benefits, making it too dangerous?).
The East India Company was delivering opium by now. Who was using it?
In Pepys' time some doctors knewn about laudanum, because in ten years from now the physician Thomas Sydenham made a huge impact on society by publishing his recipe for laudanum, sharing his discovery worldwide.
As mentioned above, Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss physician who reintroduced opium and laudanum for medical use in Western Europe. He was so enthusiastic about the drug that he would always carry it with him calling it the "immortality stone." He thought "Among medicines offered by Almighty God to relieve human suffering none is so universal and effective as opium."
The term laudanum is used in the medical literature of the 17th century to define a drug of proven efficacy, and so many laudanum recipes were named after famous physicians. Some question whether or not Paracelsus' laudanum contained opium.
Sydenham's laudanum, on the other hand, was the major opium-containing formulation used in England in the 17th century, and in the Americas until the early 20th century. It contained opium, wine, beer, saffron, clove and cinnamon.
In the 18th century other preparations appeared. One famous one invented between 1702 and 1718 was Dover's Powder consisted of a blend of opium, salt, tartar, licorice and feveroot, and Paregoric (from Le Mort, professor at the University of Leyden).
A modified formulation, called Paregoric Elixir with opium, honey, camphor, anis and wine was published in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721.
About the same time, another preparation known as Rousseau's laudanum was fashionable in Continental Europe.
However, opium's adverse effects were recognized, worrying even Sydenham.
In 1700, Londoner physician John Jones published "The Mysteries of Opium Reveal'd" which called attention to the risks of excessive use of this drug, admitting that adverse effects could be a consequence of residues not eliminated during preparation.
Two other books were written later in the 18th century about opium: George Young's "Treatise on Opium" in 1750, and Samuel Crumpe's "Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium" in 1793. Both mentioned addiction and, more superficially, withdrawal symptoms. None of them suggested any restriction on opium either as drug or as a source of pleasure.
For more information, see http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?p…...
Since the information was widely known, why did operations continue to be done without pain killers?
About Friday 5 May 1665
San Diego Sarah • Link
"The author Fanny Burney (aka Madame d'Arblay) had a breast removed in 1811 with nothing except a drink of wine and a cambric handkerchief to help her."
The problem seems to have been the inability of doctors and "scientists" to share information, and/or information getting lost. For instance, opium was brought back by the Crusaders ... but they forgot about it (possibly the addiction outweighed the benefits, making it too dangerous?).
In Pepys' time some doctors must have known about laudanum, because in 1676, physician Thomas Sydenham made a hugh impact on society by publishing his recipe for laudanum, sharing his discovery worldwide.
But he wasn't the "inventor." Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss physician who reintroduced opium for medical use in Western Europe. He was so enthusiastic about the drug that would always carry it with him calling it the "immortality stone." He thought "Among medicines offered by Almighty God to relieve human suffering none is so universal and effective as opium."
The term laudanum is used in the medical literature of the 17th century to define a drug of proven efficacy, and so many laudanum recipes were named after famous physicians. There are questions as to whether or not Paracelsus' laudanum contained opium.
Sydenham's laudanum, on the other hand, was the major opium-containing formulation used in England in the 17th century, and in the Americas until the early 20th century. It contained opium, wine, beer, saffron, clove and cinnamon.
In the 18th century other preparations appeared. One famous one invented between 1702 and 1718 was Dover's Powder consisted of a blend of opium, salt, tartar, licorice and feveroot, and Paregoric (from Le Mort, professor at the University of Leyden).
A modified formulation, called Paregoric Elixir with opium, honey, camphor, anis and wine was published in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721.
About the same time, another preparation known as Rousseau's laudanum was fashionable in Continental Europe.
However, opium's adverse effects were recognized, worrying Sydenham himself, who was a notorious enthusiast of the drug.
In 1700, Londoner physician John Jones published "The Mysteries of Opium Reveal'd" which called attention to the risks of excessive use of this drug, admitting that adverse effects could be a consequence of residues not eliminated during preparation.
Two other books were written later in the 18th century about opium: George Young's "Treatise on Opium" in 1750, and Samuel Crumpe's "Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium" in 1793. Both mentioned addiction and, more superficially, withdrawal symptoms. None of them suggested any restriction on opium either as drug or as a source of pleasure.
For more information, see http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?p…
So now that the information was widely known, why did operations continue to be done without pain killers?
About Rotherhithe (Redriffe)
San Diego Sarah • Link
There is an old pub called The Angel, worthy of a visit for its views of the Thames, and some nearby features Pepys must have known. The space immediately to the south is now a large lawn where the remains of old stone walls are visible. They are the foundations of Edward III’s Manor House. He reigned from 1327 to 1377, a long time in the 14th century.
The Manor House was built on a low-lying island when much of the land was marsh. It consisted of a central courtyard surrounded by buildings and a moat on three sides. The fourth side was open to the Thames, until land on which Bermondsey Wall now runs was reclaimed, and the growth of industry eastwards from the City resulted in construction of embankments, cutting off the house from the river by the end of the 16th century -- so those plans for protecting the Thames banks considered by Evelyn were not so far fetched.
There is access to the foreshore via stairs to the right of the Angel, the Rotherhithe Stairs. A short distance to the east is another set, modern replacements for the King’s Stairs. The King’s Stairs and the Redriff Stairs both appear on John Roque’s Map Of London of 1746.
For modern pictures, see http://spitalfieldslife.com/2019/…
About Saturday 6 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
Correct. Since you mentioned peanuts, I didn't know when they joined the British food chain:
"European explorers first discovered peanuts in Brazil. ... Tribes in central Brazil ground peanuts with maize to make a drink. Peanuts grew as far north as Mexico when the Spanish began their exploration of the new world. The explorers took peanuts back to Spain, and from there traders and explorers spread them to Asia and Africa. Africans were the first people to introduce peanuts to North America beginning in the 1700s.
"Records show that it wasn’t until the early 1800s that peanuts were grown as a commercial crop in the United States. They were first grown in Virginia and used mainly for oil, food and as a cocoa substitute. At this time, peanuts were regarded as a food for livestock and the poor and were considered difficult to grow and harvest.
"Peanut production steadily grew the first half of the 19th century. Peanuts became prominent after the Civil War when Union soldiers found they liked them and took them home. Both armies subsisted on this food source high in protein."
If they had been accepted as food in England, the knowledge would have crossed the Atlantic quicker than that.
See: http://www.nationalpeanutboard.or…
About Saturday 6 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
Germs: I wonder if their immune systems were stronger than ours?
From reading hundreds of biographies, it seems to me their lives would have averaged much the same as ours if they had had better operating facilities and knowledge. Three score and ten, as the Bible says, seems to be the design norm. (In Pepys day I would have been crippled or died at 7 from appendicitis.)
About Tuesday 9 January 1665/66
San Diego Sarah • Link
George [Palmer] Fitzroy was born in Oxford on 28 December 1665, to Charles II and Barbara Villiers Palmer, Countess of Castlemaine. He was created Earl of Northumberland in 1674, and Duke of Northumberland in 1683.
George Fitzroy married twice, but died without issue on the 28 June, 1716 at the age of 50.
The first Duchess of Northumberland was Catherine Wheatley Lucy FitzRoy, widow of Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, a Captain in the Royal Horse Guards -- I'm guessing it was his father's wedding Elizabeth and Samuel Pepys attended in 1659/60.