Ha .. I was reading a ODNB entry today about Francis Anthony, an alchemist 1550-1623. Unfortunately the free version goes away in a week, so although I've included the link, unless you are a subscriber you won't find this after 7 days.
"His [Tippar's] behaviour was so disordered, his voice so lowde, harsh and untemperat, his speeches so contemptuous and intollerable … to the whole assemblie saieng, that he cared not a fart for them, etc., that the whole company was amazed at him. -- Annals, 2.159b"
An Hungary author, Gábor Szántai, has started a Facebook page, Hungaries 1632, to make the Ottoman-Hungarian wars (1372-1699) better known and understood. During those years Hungary played a vital role in blocking the Ottoman conquest of Europe.
The last knights of Europe lived there: the warriors of the Valiant Order, the Hussar and Hajdú warriors defended the long and wild frontier which wound through The Hungaries (the lands of Royal Hungary, Transylvania, and the Ottoman Occupied Lands).
This is the only English language page in social media which is promoting the region's history. Because it's Facebook I can't give you a link, but I signed up today by typing in "Hungaries 1632". It is not government sponsored.
The basic points made are: "The frisson of a profane oath in early modern England depended upon the parallel reverence for the solemn oath. As the two drifted apart, and as reverence for oaths dwindled, society’s tolerance of swearing grew, and the nature of swearing changed.
"What now counts as swearing is very different from what outraged people 400 years ago. Modern public opinion surveys report that religious expletives and terms, such as ‘damn’, ‘God’ or ‘Christ’, are generally considered to be acceptable. Racial and sexual terms are now seen as most offensive, whereas sexual language was hardly at issue in Tudor or Stuart England."
"... after dinner to Gresham College, where a great deal of do and formality in choosing of the Council and Officers. I had three votes to be of the Council, who am but a stranger, nor expected any."
Pepys appears not to know who the three people were who voted for him.
Terry brought this to my attention, and it may illuminate how votes were cast. If it was good enough for the Plantations, it was certainly being used in England:
As early as the 17th century in America, members of fraternal clubs often voted at their meetings without paper ballots. Many decisions had to be almost unanimous; just one "no" vote could defeat a project. To ensure anonymity they used a blackball box.
Each person was given a random number of black and white marbles. To vote no, a black marble was dropped in the box. Yes required a white marble. The box had a board covering the voter's hand and marble so that no one could see the vote. Each marble made a noise when it was dropped, so only one marble could be used.
When the box was opened, it was easy for everyone to see the number of black marbles and if the project, motion or request for membership had passed or failed. It was also impossible to tell who had used a black marble because everyone still had a random number of black and white marbles in their hands.
"We never did find out what Bess and Mercer were paid to draw ledger lines nor why they were not engaged again."
Since Elizabeth is in Brampton working on Pall's marriage prospects, she can't draw lines. I suspect another servant has gone with her, so Mercer (who we know is still home) must be needed for other work. I suspect this will be an on-going chore, so maybe we will learn more about their wages later (especially as Pepys has had to pay an outside contractor for the same work, so he now knows the going rate).
"Pannier Alley takes its name from a stone monument erected on the 6th August 1688." Since this is 1666, either that isn't correct, or this refers to another place. Maybe the 14th century Panyer Alley burned down, and in 1688 another one took its place?
"Here I found her have a very comely black mayde to her servant, which I liked very well."
Pepys has Spring Fever by the sound of it. I wonder if this means she has black hair, or she is a person of African heritage. Perhaps we will find out ...
'"Thence called upon an old woman in Pannier Ally to agree for ruling of some paper for me and she will do it pretty cheap." -- What would she use? A quill, I assume.'
A good discussion about the problems of drawing grids and lines on paper can be found at https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/… which is when Elizabeth and Mercer were 'hired' to do it.
"I please myself with the thoughts of her neighbourhood, for I love the girl mightily."
Is this the first time Pepys has admitted to pleasuring himself and not always looking for a woman? I can't think of any other meaning to this sentence.
The first published poet from the North American colonies, Anne Dudley Bradstreet (daughter of the 2nd Governor of Massachusetts, and wife of Simon Bradstreet who later also became a Governor of Massachusetts) had a dreadful day today. She owned a library of 800 books at her home in Andover, and watched it all go up in flames:
"Then, coming out, behold a space, The flame consume my dwelling place," -- Anne Dudley Bradstreet of Andover, Mass., -- Verses upon the Burning of Our House, July 10, 1666.
Each month a groat (fourpence) was docked from a sailor's pay, the resulting accumulated sum being earmarked for the provision of naval chaplains. According to L&M, by an order of February 1665, any surplus was to be paid to the commanding admiral.
"... set my people to worke about setting me rails upon the leads of my wife’s closett, ..."
This is about putting railings on the leads (flat roof) outside Elizabeth's closet (office) ... now she's got a balcony.
Clothes were kept in chests/trunks or in the drawers of those beautiful inlaid cabinets you have seen. According to Wikipedia: "Some historians believe President Ronald Hanger invented a forerunner of the wooden clothes hanger. However, today's most-used hanger, the shoulder-shaped wire hanger, was inspired by a coat hook that was invented in 1869 by O. A. North of New Britain, Connecticut."
A closett was not a closet as we think about them now.
'"the making of the window in my boy’s chamber bigger, purposing it shall be a roome to eat and for having musique in." ... As I recall, this room is downstairs adjoining the entrance to the Pepys's flat. Any guesses as to where the boy is supposed to sleep/hang out?'
The Pepys already have a dining room, and a room upstairs for playing music, where Elizabeth took dancing lessons. What will be done with those rooms?
I have no idea where young Tom Edwards will sleep ... under the kitchen table? In a closet? By the fire? At the foot of Pepys' bed? Anywhere but the street, but preferably not the cellar, is a blessing.
The Dutch wrote books about Native Americans and their languages:
“A Short Sketch of the Mohawk Indians” by the Rev. Johannes Megapolensis was published in the Netherlands in 1644. It is not clear if he had visited any Native American villages or if he spoke any of their language. He wrote: “There is no Christian here [at Fort Orange or Rensselaerswyck] who understands the language thoroughly; those who have lived here long can use a kind of jargon just sufficient to carry on trade with it, but they do not understand the fundamentals of the languages.”
While many of the English descriptions of Native Americans published in the 17th century were based on superficial observations, there was one notable exception which probably eluded the English: in 1643, a young Dutchman, Adriaen van der Donck, set out to observe the countryside of New Netherlands (later called New York) and the Indian people. Van der Donck learned some of the Indian languages and classified the languages of the region as falling into four different language groups.
In 1652, van der Donck finished the manuscript he named “A Description of New Netherland”. While he obtained a license to publish it, publication was delayed as the government did not want to draw attention to the colony, fearing that the English might invade.
While no Native Americans wrote books in European languages during the 17th century, there were some Europeans who wrote works which were not anti-Indian, and were based on observation.
In 1632, Roger Williams wrote a treatise questioning English colonists’ rights to appropriate land under the authority of a royal patent. The book is described as a “large book in Quatro” but no copies survive. His fellow colonists wanted it destroyed.
In “Christenings Make Not Christians” (1645), Roger Williams argued against converting Indians to Christianity. He observed most Christians were as heathen as Indians. He argued Protestants should abstain from Indian missionary work until they succeeded amongst their own people.
Few colonists learned Native American languages. Communication with Native people was important, but English settlers assumed it was up to the Indians to learn English. A few early books included limited vocabulary.
“New England’s Prospects” by William Wood (1634) describes the region’s natural history and native peoples, including a 5-page vocabulary of words and phrases.
Perhaps the most ambitious 17th century work about Native American language is “A Key Into the Language of America” written by Roger Williams (1643). It is a phrase book and guide to Indian customs based on his experience among the Narragansett in Rhode Island. The book is organized in 3 parts: (1) Narragansett words and phrases, (2) geography and natural history, and (3) an account of Indian cultural institutions. He thought the Indians' origin was either Jewish or Greek. This was the first extensive book on Native American language published in English.
Williams contrasted Native American and European culture. He challenged the assumption of European superiority by pointing out that while Indians appear to lack civilization and Christianity, their culture was imbued with more civility and Christ-like spirit than European civilization.
“New English Canaan”, by Thomas Morton (1637) contains 3 parts: (1) “The Origins of the Natives; their Manners and Customs,” (2) “A Description of the Beauty of the Country,” and (3) “A Description of the People.” He writes about Indian medicine men and ways they had to prove their powers.
“New-Englands Rarities Discovered” by John Josselyn (1672) was based on his observations of the Eastern Abenaki in Maine. He was critical of Puritan policies so his work was criticized by his contemporaries.
Indians were portrayed as “children of the devil” in “The Present State of New-England, Being a Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians” by William Hubbard (1677). The book had a map which reduced Native American presence by assigning non-Indian names to features shown. The book listed acts for which Indians were deemed responsible: burned barns, slaughtered stock, and human massacre.
During the 17th century Europeans wrote books about Native American which both created and perpetuated stereotypes. Some were fantasies reflecting the author’s European beliefs; some were propaganda to foster a belief in the superiority of European ways; and some were sympathetic and based on observations.
When the European invasion of the Americas began in the 15th century, they found lands occupied by people not mentioned in the Bible and who did not fit into what they believed was the only world creation story. Somehow Indians had to be connected to people known to Europeans. By the 17th century a few theories had emerged:
In 1622, English scholar Edward Brerewood in “Enquiries Touching the Diversity of Languages, and Religions, Through the Chief Parts of the World” speculated that the Tartars [Mongolians] were the first people to enter the Americas. This assumed Native Americans had walked to North America over a land bridge which attached it to Asia.
Since Europeans assumed American Indians were also immigrants, they needed a reason to migrate. In 1634, theologian Joseph Mede wrote letters to New England ministers suggested Indians had migrated to the Americas because the Devil had led them there. His logic was: the Devil was afraid of losing his dominance in Europe as the Gospel spread. This provoked the Devil to gather together the barbarous northerner hordes who had never heard of Christ. The Devil promised them a superior empty land where they might thrive in a kingdom ruled by the Devil. Building on the tales of the pagan Northmen [Vikings] who had cruelly attacked Christians, Mede made it clear the Indians were ruled by the Devil.
In another idea from 1642, published in “On the Origins of the Native Races of America” by Hugo Grotius, suggested Native Americans were descendants of Germans and Chinese.
In order to place Native Americans into the Christian creation story, some suggested they were Jewish. This gave the Europeans another excuse for discrimination.
In 1650, Thomas Thorowgood in “Jewes in America, or probabilities that the Americans are of that race” compared Jewish and Native American cultures to show Indians were descended from one of the lost tribes of Israel. He wrote: “The rites, fashions, ceremonies, and opinions of the Americans are in many ways agreeable to the custome of the Jewes, not onely prophane and common usages, but such as be called solemn and sacred.” He cited the similarity between Indian and Jewish rites, knowledge of the flood, dancing, and circumcision.
In 1652 Sir Marmon l’Estrange published “Americans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that race” pointing out Thorowgood's examples were general human customs and not evidence that Indians were Jews.
Some early history of North America and attitudes towards Native Americans as given by Karen Ordahl Kupperman in "Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America":
In 1576, Sir Humphrey Gilbert proposed North America was an island previously called Atlantis. And in 1577, Gilbert got a patent to occupy North American lands not occupied by Spain. The legal fiction Discovery Doctrine gave Christian nations power to occupy lands not under the rule of another Christian monarch.
In 1585, John White, an artist, and Thomas Harriot, an Oxford graduate in mathematics and geography, sailed to Virginia to create a 'natural history' of the area. Of White’s portraits, Kupperman says: “He was meticulous in attempting to render an exact and sympathetic likeness of the people he had come to know. His Indians were tanned, they assumed postures that looked ungainly in European eyes, and their faces seemed to reflect Asian origins.”
In 1588, Hariot published "A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia". Kupperman says: “Hariot, ..., gave a fully rounded picture of Indian life, religion, government, and social structure. He was sensitive to the changes being wrought in that life by the coming of Europeans; he reported the Indians’ agonized bewilderment over the disease that killed so many of them.”
By 1588 Europeans, believing everyone descended from Adam and Eve, had to explain how 'Indians' were in a land far from where Eden existed. In "Historia natural y moral de las Indias" the Spanish Friar José de Acosta proposed Native Americans arrived in the New World by walking across a land bridge from Asia. His theory this may have happened 2,000 years before the Spanish arrival was not based on any Indian tradition or evidence.
In "Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America," James Dixon says: “... he believed that the human species had originated in the Old World based on the teachings of the Bible.”
José Rabasa, in "Inventing America: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentralism" says: “Acosta also faces the task of explaining how the descendants of Noah became the idolatrous barbarians of the New World. For this he provides a theory of their degeneration to a state of savagery and a posterior reinvention of culture under the tutelage of Satan.”
In 1591, Theodore de Bry published "America", illustrated with drawings by Jacques Lemoyne. In "The Changing Presentation of the American Indian: Museums and Native Cultures", Evan Maurer says: “… the depictions ... in de Bry’s America are based on late-Renaissance models, which were inspired by the much-admired classicism of Greece and Rome. These images were among the earliest ‘neoclassical’ portrayals of the American Indian in the romantic guise of ‘the noble savage.’"
John, they had a more fluid understanding of work and not work, and between friend and work relationships. You employed people you liked and trusted; Hewer had lived with the Pepys and had looked out for Elizabeth for years; his day out freed Sam up from having to ride with Elizabeth -- highwaymen were a problem at the time. So I think this would be regarded as (a welcome) part of his custodial duties.
Comments
Second Reading
About Thursday 25 September 1662
San Diego Sarah • Link
Ha .. I was reading a ODNB entry today about Francis Anthony, an alchemist 1550-1623. Unfortunately the free version goes away in a week, so although I've included the link, unless you are a subscriber you won't find this after 7 days.
"His [Tippar's] behaviour was so disordered, his voice so lowde, harsh and untemperat, his speeches so contemptuous and intollerable … to the whole assemblie saieng, that he cared not a fart for them, etc., that the whole company was amazed at him. -- Annals, 2.159b"
So "fart" was a word of contempt in 1602.
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.…
About Ottoman Empire
San Diego Sarah • Link
He is, of course, a Hungarian author ... I saw what I want to see, and read what I want to read again.
About Ottoman Empire
San Diego Sarah • Link
An Hungary author, Gábor Szántai, has started a Facebook page, Hungaries 1632, to make the Ottoman-Hungarian wars (1372-1699) better known and understood. During those years Hungary played a vital role in blocking the Ottoman conquest of Europe.
The last knights of Europe lived there: the warriors of the Valiant Order, the Hussar and Hajdú warriors defended the long and wild frontier which wound through The Hungaries (the lands of Royal Hungary, Transylvania, and the Ottoman Occupied Lands).
This is the only English language page in social media which is promoting the region's history. Because it's Facebook I can't give you a link, but I signed up today by typing in "Hungaries 1632". It is not government sponsored.
About Thursday 25 September 1662
San Diego Sarah • Link
"Rude" words ... maybe this article can explain what Pepys and his peers thought about and considered "swearing":
https://www.historyextra.com/peri…
The basic points made are:
"The frisson of a profane oath in early modern England depended upon the parallel reverence for the solemn oath. As the two drifted apart, and as reverence for oaths dwindled, society’s tolerance of swearing grew, and the nature of swearing changed.
"What now counts as swearing is very different from what outraged people 400 years ago. Modern public opinion surveys report that religious expletives and terms, such as ‘damn’, ‘God’ or ‘Christ’, are generally considered to be acceptable. Racial and sexual terms are now seen as most offensive, whereas sexual language was hardly at issue in Tudor or Stuart England."
About Wednesday 11 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
Yes, Louise ... like Mr. Crapper.
About Wednesday 11 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
"... after dinner to Gresham College, where a great deal of do and formality in choosing of the Council and Officers. I had three votes to be of the Council, who am but a stranger, nor expected any."
Pepys appears not to know who the three people were who voted for him.
Terry brought this to my attention, and it may illuminate how votes were cast. If it was good enough for the Plantations, it was certainly being used in England:
https://www.wisfarmer.com/story/m…
As early as the 17th century in America, members of fraternal clubs often voted at their meetings without paper ballots. Many decisions had to be almost unanimous; just one "no" vote could defeat a project. To ensure anonymity they used a blackball box.
Each person was given a random number of black and white marbles. To vote no, a black marble was dropped in the box. Yes required a white marble. The box had a board covering the voter's hand and marble so that no one could see the vote. Each marble made a noise when it was dropped, so only one marble could be used.
When the box was opened, it was easy for everyone to see the number of black marbles and if the project, motion or request for membership had passed or failed. It was also impossible to tell who had used a black marble because everyone still had a random number of black and white marbles in their hands.
About Friday 13 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
"We never did find out what Bess and Mercer were paid to draw ledger lines nor why they were not engaged again."
Since Elizabeth is in Brampton working on Pall's marriage prospects, she can't draw lines. I suspect another servant has gone with her, so Mercer (who we know is still home) must be needed for other work. I suspect this will be an on-going chore, so maybe we will learn more about their wages later (especially as Pepys has had to pay an outside contractor for the same work, so he now knows the going rate).
About Pannier Alley
San Diego Sarah • Link
"Pannier Alley takes its name from a stone monument erected on the 6th August 1688." Since this is 1666, either that isn't correct, or this refers to another place. Maybe the 14th century Panyer Alley burned down, and in 1688 another one took its place?
About Friday 13 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
"Here I found her have a very comely black mayde to her servant, which I liked very well."
Pepys has Spring Fever by the sound of it. I wonder if this means she has black hair, or she is a person of African heritage. Perhaps we will find out ...
About Friday 13 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
'"Thence called upon an old woman in Pannier Ally to agree for ruling of some paper for me and she will do it pretty cheap." -- What would she use? A quill, I assume.'
A good discussion about the problems of drawing grids and lines on paper can be found at
https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/…
which is when Elizabeth and Mercer were 'hired' to do it.
About Friday 13 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
"I please myself with the thoughts of her neighbourhood, for I love the girl mightily."
Is this the first time Pepys has admitted to pleasuring himself and not always looking for a woman? I can't think of any other meaning to this sentence.
About Tuesday 10 July 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
The first published poet from the North American colonies, Anne Dudley Bradstreet (daughter of the 2nd Governor of Massachusetts, and wife of Simon Bradstreet who later also became a Governor of Massachusetts) had a dreadful day today. She owned a library of 800 books at her home in Andover, and watched it all go up in flames:
"Then, coming out, behold a space,
The flame consume my dwelling place," -- Anne Dudley Bradstreet of Andover, Mass., -- Verses upon the Burning of Our House, July 10, 1666.
About Groat
San Diego Sarah • Link
The navy had a special use for groats:
Each month a groat (fourpence) was docked from a sailor's pay, the resulting accumulated sum being earmarked for the provision of naval chaplains. According to L&M, by an order of February 1665, any surplus was to be paid to the commanding admiral.
By April 1666 the Duke of York was being called upon to legislate who got how much in Capt. Allin -vs- Mr. Wayth. www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1666/0… and https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/…
About Wednesday 11 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
"... set my people to worke about setting me rails upon the leads of my wife’s closett, ..."
This is about putting railings on the leads (flat roof) outside Elizabeth's closet (office) ... now she's got a balcony.
Clothes were kept in chests/trunks or in the drawers of those beautiful inlaid cabinets you have seen. According to Wikipedia: "Some historians believe President Ronald Hanger invented a forerunner of the wooden clothes hanger. However, today's most-used hanger, the shoulder-shaped wire hanger, was inspired by a coat hook that was invented in 1869 by O. A. North of New Britain, Connecticut."
A closett was not a closet as we think about them now.
If you haven't done it yet, read Sue Nicholson's essay at https://www.pepysdiary.com/indept… about the evolution of the Pepys abode.
About Monday 9 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
'"the making of the window in my boy’s chamber bigger, purposing it shall be a roome to eat and for having musique in." ... As I recall, this room is downstairs adjoining the entrance to the Pepys's flat. Any guesses as to where the boy is supposed to sleep/hang out?'
The Pepys already have a dining room, and a room upstairs for playing music, where Elizabeth took dancing lessons. What will be done with those rooms?
I have no idea where young Tom Edwards will sleep ... under the kitchen table? In a closet? By the fire? At the foot of Pepys' bed? Anywhere but the street, but preferably not the cellar, is a blessing.
About New Netherland, America
San Diego Sarah • Link
The Dutch wrote books about Native Americans and their languages:
“A Short Sketch of the Mohawk Indians” by the Rev. Johannes Megapolensis was published in the Netherlands in 1644. It is not clear if he had visited any Native American villages or if he spoke any of their language. He wrote:
“There is no Christian here [at Fort Orange or Rensselaerswyck] who understands the language thoroughly; those who have lived here long can use a kind of jargon just sufficient to carry on trade with it, but they do not understand the fundamentals of the languages.”
While many of the English descriptions of Native Americans published in the 17th century were based on superficial observations, there was one notable exception which probably eluded the English:
in 1643, a young Dutchman, Adriaen van der Donck, set out to observe the countryside of New Netherlands (later called New York) and the Indian people. Van der Donck learned some of the Indian languages and classified the languages of the region as falling into four different language groups.
In 1652, van der Donck finished the manuscript he named “A Description of New Netherland”. While he obtained a license to publish it, publication was delayed as the government did not want to draw attention to the colony, fearing that the English might invade.
The word was out anyways.
For more information, see https://www.dailykos.com/stories/…... which is part of their series on Native American tribal history.
About Puritanism
San Diego Sarah • Link
While no Native Americans wrote books in European languages during the 17th century, there were some Europeans who wrote works which were not anti-Indian, and were based on observation.
In 1632, Roger Williams wrote a treatise questioning English colonists’ rights to appropriate land under the authority of a royal patent. The book is described as a “large book in Quatro” but no copies survive. His fellow colonists wanted it destroyed.
In “Christenings Make Not Christians” (1645), Roger Williams argued against converting Indians to Christianity. He observed most Christians were as heathen as Indians. He argued Protestants should abstain from Indian missionary work until they succeeded amongst their own people.
Few colonists learned Native American languages. Communication with Native people was important, but English settlers assumed it was up to the Indians to learn English. A few early books included limited vocabulary.
“New England’s Prospects” by William Wood (1634) describes the region’s natural history and native peoples, including a 5-page vocabulary of words and phrases.
Perhaps the most ambitious 17th century work about Native American language is “A Key Into the Language of America” written by Roger Williams (1643). It is a phrase book and guide to Indian customs based on his experience among the Narragansett in Rhode Island. The book is organized in 3 parts: (1) Narragansett words and phrases, (2) geography and natural history, and (3) an account of Indian cultural institutions. He thought the Indians' origin was either Jewish or Greek. This was the first extensive book on Native American language published in English.
Williams contrasted Native American and European culture. He challenged the assumption of European superiority by pointing out that while Indians appear to lack civilization and Christianity, their culture was imbued with more civility and Christ-like spirit than European civilization.
“New English Canaan”, by Thomas Morton (1637) contains 3 parts: (1) “The Origins of the Natives; their Manners and Customs,” (2) “A Description of the Beauty of the Country,” and (3) “A Description of the People.” He writes about Indian medicine men and ways they had to prove their powers.
“New-Englands Rarities Discovered” by John Josselyn (1672) was based on his observations of the Eastern Abenaki in Maine. He was critical of Puritan policies so his work was criticized by his contemporaries.
Indians were portrayed as “children of the devil” in “The Present State of New-England, Being a Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians” by William Hubbard (1677). The book had a map which reduced Native American presence by assigning non-Indian names to features shown. The book listed acts for which Indians were deemed responsible: burned barns, slaughtered stock, and human massacre.
https://www.dailykos.com/stories/…
About Judaism
San Diego Sarah • Link
During the 17th century Europeans wrote books about Native American which both created and perpetuated stereotypes. Some were fantasies reflecting the author’s European beliefs; some were propaganda to foster a belief in the superiority of European ways; and some were sympathetic and based on observations.
When the European invasion of the Americas began in the 15th century, they found lands occupied by people not mentioned in the Bible and who did not fit into what they believed was the only world creation story. Somehow Indians had to be connected to people known to Europeans. By the 17th century a few theories had emerged:
In 1622, English scholar Edward Brerewood in “Enquiries Touching the Diversity of Languages, and Religions, Through the Chief Parts of the World” speculated that the Tartars [Mongolians] were the first people to enter the Americas. This assumed Native Americans had walked to North America over a land bridge which attached it to Asia.
Since Europeans assumed American Indians were also immigrants, they needed a reason to migrate. In 1634, theologian Joseph Mede wrote letters to New England ministers suggested Indians had migrated to the Americas because the Devil had led them there. His logic was: the Devil was afraid of losing his dominance in Europe as the Gospel spread. This provoked the Devil to gather together the barbarous northerner hordes who had never heard of Christ. The Devil promised them a superior empty land where they might thrive in a kingdom ruled by the Devil. Building on the tales of the pagan Northmen [Vikings] who had cruelly attacked Christians, Mede made it clear the Indians were ruled by the Devil.
In another idea from 1642, published in “On the Origins of the Native Races of America” by Hugo Grotius, suggested Native Americans were descendants of Germans and Chinese.
In order to place Native Americans into the Christian creation story, some suggested they were Jewish. This gave the Europeans another excuse for discrimination.
In 1650, Thomas Thorowgood in “Jewes in America, or probabilities that the Americans are of that race” compared Jewish and Native American cultures to show Indians were descended from one of the lost tribes of Israel. He wrote:
“The rites, fashions, ceremonies, and opinions of the Americans are in many ways agreeable to the custome of the Jewes, not onely prophane and common usages, but such as be called solemn and sacred.” He cited the similarity between Indian and Jewish rites, knowledge of the flood, dancing, and circumcision.
In 1652 Sir Marmon l’Estrange published “Americans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that race” pointing out Thorowgood's examples were general human customs and not evidence that Indians were Jews.
For more information, see https://www.dailykos.com/stories/… which is part of a series on Native Americans
About Saint John River, Canada
San Diego Sarah • Link
Some early history of North America and attitudes towards Native Americans as given by Karen Ordahl Kupperman in "Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America":
In 1576, Sir Humphrey Gilbert proposed North America was an island previously called Atlantis. And in 1577, Gilbert got a patent to occupy North American lands not occupied by Spain. The legal fiction Discovery Doctrine gave Christian nations power to occupy lands not under the rule of another Christian monarch.
In 1585, John White, an artist, and Thomas Harriot, an Oxford graduate in mathematics and geography, sailed to Virginia to create a 'natural history' of the area. Of White’s portraits, Kupperman says:
“He was meticulous in attempting to render an exact and sympathetic likeness of the people he had come to know. His Indians were tanned, they assumed postures that looked ungainly in European eyes, and their faces seemed to reflect Asian origins.”
In 1588, Hariot published "A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia". Kupperman says:
“Hariot, ..., gave a fully rounded picture of Indian life, religion, government, and social structure. He was sensitive to the changes being wrought in that life by the coming of Europeans; he reported the Indians’ agonized bewilderment over the disease that killed so many of them.”
By 1588 Europeans, believing everyone descended from Adam and Eve, had to explain how 'Indians' were in a land far from where Eden existed. In "Historia natural y moral de las Indias" the Spanish Friar José de Acosta proposed Native Americans arrived in the New World by walking across a land bridge from Asia. His theory this may have happened 2,000 years before the Spanish arrival was not based on any Indian tradition or evidence.
In "Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America," James Dixon says:
“... he believed that the human species had originated in the Old World based on the teachings of the Bible.”
José Rabasa, in "Inventing America: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentralism" says:
“Acosta also faces the task of explaining how the descendants of Noah became the idolatrous barbarians of the New World. For this he provides a theory of their degeneration to a state of savagery and a posterior reinvention of culture under the tutelage of Satan.”
In 1591, Theodore de Bry published "America", illustrated with drawings by Jacques Lemoyne. In "The Changing Presentation of the American Indian: Museums and Native Cultures", Evan Maurer says:
“… the depictions ... in de Bry’s America are based on late-Renaissance models, which were inspired by the much-admired classicism of Greece and Rome. These images were among the earliest ‘neoclassical’ portrayals of the American Indian in the romantic guise of ‘the noble savage.’"
https://www.dailykos.com/stories/…
About Friday 6 April 1666
San Diego Sarah • Link
John, they had a more fluid understanding of work and not work, and between friend and work relationships. You employed people you liked and trusted; Hewer had lived with the Pepys and had looked out for Elizabeth for years; his day out freed Sam up from having to ride with Elizabeth -- highwaymen were a problem at the time. So I think this would be regarded as (a welcome) part of his custodial duties.